日本小児呼吸器学会・日本小児感染症学会編：小児呼吸器感染症診療ガイドライン2022、協和企画、2022.
Takeuchi N, Naito S, Ohkusu M, Abe K, Shizuno K, Takahashi Y, Omata Y, Nakazawa T, Takeshita K, Hishiki H, Hoshino T, Sato Y, Ishiwada N.
Epidemiology of hospitalised paediatric community-acquired pneumonia and bacterial pneumonia following the introduction of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in the national immunisation programme in Japan.
Epidemiol Infect. 2020 Apr 17;148:e91. doi: 10.1017/S0950268820000813. Epub 2020 Apr 17.
Abstract/Text
Studies on community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and pneumococcal pneumonia (PP) related to the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) introduction in Asia are scarce. This study aimed to investigate the epidemiological and microbiological determinants of hospitalised CAP and PP after PCV13 was introduced in Japan. This observational hospital-based surveillance study included children aged ⩽15 years, admitted to hospitals in and around Chiba City, Japan. Participants had bacterial pneumonia based on a positive blood or sputum culture for bacterial pathogens. Serotype and antibiotic-susceptibility testing of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae isolates from patients with bacterial pneumonia were assessed. The CAP hospitalisation rate per 1000 child-years was 17.7, 14.3 and 9.7 in children aged <5 years and 1.18, 2.64 and 0.69 in children aged 5-15 years in 2008, 2012 and 2018, respectively. There was a 45% and 41% reduction in CAP hospitalisation rates, between the pre-PCV7 and PCV13 periods, respectively. Significant reductions occurred in the proportion of CAP due to PP and PCV13 serotypes. Conversely, no change occurred in the proportion of CAP caused by H. influenzae. The incidence of hospitalised CAP in children aged ⩽15 years was significantly reduced after the introduction of PCV13 in Japan. Continuous surveillance is necessary to detect emerging PP serotypes.
Cherian T, Mulholland EK, Carlin JB, Ostensen H, Amin R, de Campo M, Greenberg D, Lagos R, Lucero M, Madhi SA, O'Brien KL, Obaro S, Steinhoff MC.
Standardized interpretation of paediatric chest radiographs for the diagnosis of pneumonia in epidemiological studies.
Bull World Health Organ. 2005 May;83(5):353-9. Epub 2005 Jun 24.
Abstract/Text
BACKGROUND: Although radiological pneumonia is used as an outcome measure in epidemiological studies, there is considerable variability in the interpretation of chest radiographs. A standardized method for identifying radiological pneumonia would facilitate comparison of the results of vaccine trials and epidemiological studies of pneumonia.
METHODS: A WHO working group developed definitions for radiological pneumonia. Inter-observer variability in categorizing a set of 222 chest radiographic images was measured by comparing the readings made by 20 radiologists and clinicians with a reference reading. Intra-observer variability was measured by comparing the initial readings of a randomly chosen subset of 100 radiographs with repeat readings made 8-30 days later.
FINDINGS: Of the 222 images, 208 were considered interpretable. The reference reading categorized 43% of these images as showing alveolar consolidation or pleural effusion (primary end-point pneumonia); the proportion thus categorized by each of the 20 readers ranged from 8% to 61%. Using the reference reading as the gold standard, 14 of the 20 readers had sensitivity and specificity of > 0.70 in identifying primary end-point pneumonia; 13 out of 20 readers had a kappa index of > 0.6 compared with the reference reading. For the 92 radiographs deemed to be interpretable among the 100 images used for intra-observer variability, 19 out of 20 readers had a kappa index of > 0.6.
CONCLUSION: Using standardized definitions and training, it is possible to achieve agreement in identifying radiological pneumonia, thus facilitating the comparison of results of epidemiological studies that use radiological pneumonia as an outcome.
World Health Organization : Programme for the control of acute respiratory infections:technical bases for the WHO recommendations on the management of pneumonia in children at first-level health facilities. WHO/ARI/91.20.
McIntosh K.
Community-acquired pneumonia in children.
N Engl J Med. 2002 Feb 7;346(6):429-37. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra011994.
Abstract/Text
黒崎知道，石和田稔彦：起炎病原体別からみた小児肺炎. 日本小児呼吸器疾患学会誌 1998: 9(2); 124-134.
国立感染症研究所: 百日咳 2021年1月現在. IASR 2021; 42: 109-110, 2021.
Havers FP, Pedro L. Susan Hariri, et al： https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/pert.html_Pertussis Updated December 2020. Pinkbook: Pertussis | CDC.
荻田純子, 石和田稔彦, 黒崎知道ほか： 小児市中肺炎および血液培養陽性肺炎球菌性肺炎の罹患率調査． 感染症学雑誌 2008: 82; 624-627.
石和田稔彦, 黒崎知道, 鳥羽剛ほか：小児肺炎の現況―胸部エックス.線像の検討―.日本小児科学会雑誌 1994: 98; 2012-2016.
Bradley JS, Byington CL, Shah SS, Alverson B, Carter ER, Harrison C, Kaplan SL, Mace SE, McCracken GH Jr, Moore MR, St Peter SD, Stockwell JA, Swanson JT; Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America.
The management of community-acquired pneumonia in infants and children older than 3 months of age: clinical practice guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America.
Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Oct;53(7):e25-76. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir531. Epub 2011 Aug 31.
Abstract/Text
Evidenced-based guidelines for management of infants and children with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) were prepared by an expert panel comprising clinicians and investigators representing community pediatrics, public health, and the pediatric specialties of critical care, emergency medicine, hospital medicine, infectious diseases, pulmonology, and surgery. These guidelines are intended for use by primary care and subspecialty providers responsible for the management of otherwise healthy infants and children with CAP in both outpatient and inpatient settings. Site-of-care management, diagnosis, antimicrobial and adjunctive surgical therapy, and prevention are discussed. Areas that warrant future investigations are also highlighted.
黒崎知道：「小児肺炎診療ガイドライン」に関する基礎的検討．治療の選択 日本小児呼吸器疾患学会誌 2003: 14; 198-204.
Swischuk LE, Hayden CK Jr.
Viral vs. bacterial pulmonary infections in children (is roentgenographic differentiation possible?).
Pediatr Radiol. 1986;16(4):278-84. doi: 10.1007/BF02386862.
Abstract/Text
This study was conducted to determine whether one could identify viral and bacterial pulmonary infections with confidence. It has been our impression for some time that one could differentiate viral from bacterial pulmonary infections on the basis of roentgenographic findings alone and to test this hypothesis, we conducted this study where the roentgenographic findings first were categorized as being due to viral or bacterial infection and then compared with clinical results. The overall accuracy was just over 90% and our method of analysis is presented.
Flood RG, Badik J, Aronoff SC.
The utility of serum C-reactive protein in differentiating bacterial from nonbacterial pneumonia in children: a meta-analysis of 1230 children.
Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008 Feb;27(2):95-9. doi: 10.1097/INF.0b013e318157aced.
Abstract/Text
BACKGROUND: Differentiating bacterial from nonbacterial community-acquired pneumonia in children is difficult. Although several studies have evaluated serum concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP) as a predictor of bacterial pneumonia in this patient population, the utility of this test remains unclear.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this meta-analysis was to quantitatively define the utility of serum CRP as a predictor of bacterial pneumonia in acutely ill children.
METHODS: Multiple databases were searched, bibliographies reviewed, and 2 authorities in the field were queried. Studies were included if: (1) the patient population was between 1 month and 18 years of age; (2) CRP was quantified in all subjects as part of the initial evaluation of a suspected, infectious, pulmonary process; (3) a cutoff serum CRP concentration between 30 and 60 mg/dL was used to distinguish nonbacterial from bacterial pneumonia; (4) some criteria were applied to differentiate bacterial from nonbacterial or viral pneumonia; (5) all patients were acutely ill; and (6) a chest radiograph was obtained as part of the initial evaluation. The quality of each included study was determined across 4 metrics: diagnostic criteria; study design; exclusion of chronically ill or human immunodeficiency virus infected subjects; and exclusion of patients who recently received antibiotics. Data was extracted from each article; the primary outcome measure was the odds ratio of patients with bacterial or mixed etiology pneumonia and serum CRP concentrations exceeding 30-60 mg/L. Heterogeneity among the studies was determined by Cochran's Q statistic; the methods of both Mantel and Haenszel, and DerSimonian and Laird were used to combine the study results.
RESULTS: Eight studies fulfilled inclusion criteria. Combining all of the studies demonstrated a pooled study population of 1230 patients with the incidence of bacterial infection of 41%. Children with bacterial pneumonia were significantly more likely to have serum CRP concentrations exceeding 35-60 mg/L than children with nonbacterial infections (odds ratio = 2.58, 95% confidence interval = 1.20-5.55). Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that this difference was robust. There was significant heterogeneity among the 8 studies (Q = 37.7, P < 0.001, I2 = 81.4) that remained throughout the sensitivity analysis.
CONCLUSIONS: In children with pneumonia, serum CRP concentrations exceeding 40-60 mg/L weakly predict a bacterial etiology.
上原すず子, 中村明: 小児急性呼吸器感染症の病原診断と予後―わが国における死亡例の検討―. 抗酸菌病研究雑誌 1985: 37; 177-185.
武田紳江,黒崎知道,河野陽一: 小児気管支肺感染症の原因菌の推移について(2001～2006年). 小児感染免疫 2008: 20; 465-468.
Hamano-Hasegawa K, Morozumi M, Nakayama E, Chiba N, Murayama SY, Takayanagi R, Iwata S, Sunakawa K, Ubukata K; Acute Respiratory Diseases Study Group.
Comprehensive detection of causative pathogens using real-time PCR to diagnose pediatric community-acquired pneumonia.
J Infect Chemother. 2008 Dec;14(6):424-32. doi: 10.1007/s10156-008-0648-6. Epub 2008 Dec 17.
Abstract/Text
We have developed a real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) method to detect 13 respiratory viruses: influenza virus A and B; respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) subgroup A and B; parainfluenza virus (PIV) 1, 2, and 3; adenovirus; rhinovirus (RV); enterovirus; coronavirus (OC43); human metapneumovirus (hMPV); and human bocavirus (HBoV). The new method for detection of these viruses was applied simultaneously with real-time PCR for the detection of six bacterial pathogens in clinical samples from 1700 pediatric patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Of all the patients, 32.5% were suspected to have single bacterial infections; 1.9%, multiple bacterial infections; 15.2%, coinfections of bacteria and viruses; 25.8%, single viral infections; and 2.1%, multiple viral infections. In the remaining 22.6%, the etiology was unknown. The breakdown of suspected causative pathogens was as follows: 24.4% were Streptococcus pneumoniae, 14.8% were Mycoplasma pneumoniae, 11.3% were Haemophilus influenzae, and 1.4% were Chlamydophila pneumoniae. The breakdown of viruses was as follows: 14.5% were RV, 9.4% were RSV, 7.4% were hMPV, 7.2% were PIV, and 2.9% were HBoV. The new method will contribute to advances in the accuracy of diagnosis and should also result in the appropriate use of antimicrobials.
武田紳江, 黒崎知道, 有馬聖永ほか: 小児肺炎における初期抗菌薬としてのampicillinの有効性について. 日本小児科学会雑誌 2008: 112; 1081-1087.
Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute：Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing ; 18thInformational Supplement M100-S18. Vol.28 No.1, CLSI, Wayne, 2008.
黒崎知道: ペニシリン耐性肺炎球菌による気管支肺感染症－抗菌薬選択上の問題点と今後期待されるワクチン療法. 医学のあゆみ 2004: 208; 19-22.
Suzuki S, Yamazaki T, Narita M, Okazaki N, Suzuki I, Andoh T, Matsuoka M, Kenri T, Arakawa Y, Sasaki T.
Clinical evaluation of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006 Feb;50(2):709-12. doi: 10.1128/AAC.50.2.709-712.2006.
Abstract/Text
Macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MR M. pneumoniae) has been isolated from clinical specimens in Japan since 2000. A comparative study was carried out to determine whether or not macrolides are effective in treating patients infected with MR M. pneumoniae. The clinical courses of 11 patients with MR M. pneumoniae infection (MR patients) treated with macrolides were compared with those of 26 patients with macrolide-susceptible M. pneumoniae infection (MS patients). The total febrile days and the number of febrile days during macrolide administration were longer in the MR patients than in the MS patients (median of 8 days versus median of 5 days [P = 0.019] and 3 days versus 1 day [P = 0.002], respectively). In addition, the MR patients were more likely than the MS patients to have had a change of the initially prescribed macrolide to another antimicrobial agent (63.6% versus 3.8%; odds ratio, 43.8; P < 0.001), which might reflect the pediatrician's judgment that the initially prescribed macrolide was not sufficiently effective in these patients. Despite the fact that the febrile period was prolonged in MR patients given macrolides, the fever resolved even when the initial prescription was not changed. These results show that macrolides are certainly less effective in MR patients.
植田育也ほか: 小児インフルエンザ重症肺炎・ARDSの診療戦略（2009年9月30日版）. 日本小児科学会雑誌2009: 113; 1501-1508.
閑野将行, 今野昭宏, 早川裕子ほか: 小児下気道感染症に対するアンピシリンとスルバクタム/アンピシリンの治療効果の比較. 日本小児科学会雑誌 2010: 114; 1041-1047.
日本呼吸器学会；呼吸器感染症に関するガイドライン作成委員会編：成人市中肺炎診療ガイドライン2005.
小林宏行ほか: 呼吸不全を伴った急性肺炎に対するステロイド併用に関する臨床的・実験的研究. 感染症学雑誌 1983: 57; 871-881.
Oishi T, Narita M, Matsui K, Shirai T, Matsuo M, Negishi J, Kaneko T, Tsukano S, Taguchi T, Uchiyama M.
Clinical implications of interleukin-18 levels in pediatric patients with Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia.
J Infect Chemother. 2011 Dec;17(6):803-6. doi: 10.1007/s10156-011-0265-7. Epub 2011 Jun 17.
Abstract/Text
The immunological pathogenesis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia is known to involve several cytokines. The serum levels of interleukin-18 (IL-18) were examined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 23 pediatric patients (median age 6 years; range 4-13 years; 14 girls and 9 boys) with M. pneumoniae pneumonia admitted to our hospital. Serum levels of IL-18 ranged from 22 to 1808 pg/ml with a mean of 543 pg/ml. We started steroid therapy in two cases with IL-18 values greater than 1000 pg/ml without being aware of IL-18 levels. Examination of associations between IL-18 levels determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and a routine laboratory test showed that levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and IL-18 were significantly correlated. To determine the appropriateness of steroid administration in M. pneumoniae pneumonia patients, serum LDH should be examined. Patients with elevated levels of LDH are likely to have significantly elevated IL-18 values (≥1000 pg/ml) and thus can be candidates for steroid therapy.
